diff --git a/.github/workflows/functional-test.yml b/.github/workflows/functional-test.yml
index 05368249..609e4ba5 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/functional-test.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/functional-test.yml
@@ -14,12 +14,20 @@ concurrency:
 
 jobs:
   ios_test:
+    name: ios_test (global_driver=${{ matrix.global_driver }})
+    strategy:
+      fail-fast: false
+      matrix:
+        global_driver: ['true', 'false']
     runs-on: macos-15
     timeout-minutes: 90
     env:
-          XCODE_VERSION: 16.4
-          IOS_VERSION: 18.5
-          IOS_DEVICE_NAME: iPhone 16 Plus
+      APPIUM_TEST_GLOBAL_DRIVER: ${{ matrix.global_driver }}
+      XCODE_VERSION: 16.4
+      IOS_VERSION: 18.5
+      IOS_DEVICE_NAME: iPhone 16 Plus
+      # Allow WDA startup (up to 600s) and session creation to finish.
+      APPIUM_TEST_READ_TIMEOUT: 900
 
     steps:
     - uses: actions/checkout@v7
@@ -44,8 +52,6 @@ jobs:
     - name: Preparing other environment
       run: |
         brew install ffmpeg
-        brew tap wix/brew
-        brew install applesimutils
 
     # Start Appium
     - name: Install appium and mjpeg-consumer
@@ -79,15 +85,21 @@ jobs:
       if: ${{ always() }}
       uses: actions/upload-artifact@master
       with:
-        name: appium-ios_test_with_other_deps.log
+        name: appium-ios_test_with_other_deps-global-${{ matrix.global_driver }}.log
         path: |
           appium.log
           test/report/
 
   android_test:
+    name: android_test (global_driver=${{ matrix.global_driver }})
+    strategy:
+      fail-fast: false
+      matrix:
+        global_driver: ['true', 'false']
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     timeout-minutes: 90
     env:
+      APPIUM_TEST_GLOBAL_DRIVER: ${{ matrix.global_driver }}
       API_LEVEL: 35
       ARCH: x86_64
 
@@ -164,7 +176,7 @@ jobs:
       if: ${{ always() }}
       uses: actions/upload-artifact@master
       with:
-        name: appium-android_test_with_other_deps.log
+        name: appium-android_test_with_other_deps-global-${{ matrix.global_driver }}.log
         path: |
           appium.log
           test/report/
diff --git a/android_tests/lib/android/navigation.rb b/android_tests/lib/android/navigation.rb
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..40bade11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/android_tests/lib/android/navigation.rb
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+# frozen_string_literal: true
+
+# Helpers for functional tests that need a fresh native ApiDemos screen.
+module AndroidTestNavigation
+  def start_test_activity(component)
+    AppiumTestSession.driver.execute_script 'mobile: startActivity',
+                                            component: component,
+                                            action: 'android.intent.action.MAIN',
+                                            flags: '0x10200000',
+                                            wait: true,
+                                            stop: true
+  end
+
+  def reset_test_app
+    start_test_activity('io.appium.android.apis/.ApiDemos')
+  end
+end
diff --git a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/element/alert.rb b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/element/alert.rb
index 391f8a96..0072d923 100644
--- a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/element/alert.rb
+++ b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/element/alert.rb
@@ -16,16 +16,27 @@
 class AndroidTest
   class Element
     class Alert < Minitest::Test
+      include AndroidTestNavigation
+
+      def setup
+        super
+        reset_test_app
+        wait { find('app').click }
+        wait { find('alert').click }
+      end
+
+      def teardown
+        reset_test_app
+      ensure
+        super
+      end
+
       def open_alert
         # trigger the alert
         wait { button('OK Cancel dialog with a message').click }
       end
 
       def test_01_alert_click
-        # nav to alert activity
-        wait { find('app').click }
-        wait { find('alert').click }
-
         # test
         wait { open_alert }
         wait { alert_click('OK') }
@@ -57,9 +68,6 @@ def test_05_alert_dismiss_text
 
         wait { assert_equal alert_dismiss_text.downcase, 'cancel' }
         wait { alert_dismiss }
-
-        # nav to start activity
-        2.times { back }
       end
     end
   end
diff --git a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/element/button.rb b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/element/button.rb
index d10462ed..61d08ad7 100644
--- a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/element/button.rb
+++ b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/element/button.rb
@@ -16,26 +16,26 @@
 class AndroidTest
   class Element
     class Button < Minitest::Test
-      def before_first
-        # nav to buttons activity
+      include AndroidTestNavigation
+
+      def setup
+        super
+        reset_test_app
         wait { find('App').click }
         wait { find('Activity').click }
         wait { find('Animation').click }
       end
 
-      def after_last
-        # nav back to home activity
-        3.times { back }
+      def teardown
+        reset_test_app
+      ensure
+        super
       end
 
       def fade_in
         'Fade in'
       end
 
-      def test_01_before_first
-        before_first
-      end
-
       def test_02_button
         # by index
         2.times { wait { assert_equal button(1).text.upcase, fade_in.upcase } }
@@ -65,10 +65,6 @@ def test_06_button_exact
       def test_07_buttons_exact
         2.times { wait { assert_equal buttons_exact(fade_in).first.text.upcase, fade_in.upcase } }
       end
-
-      def test_08_after_last
-        after_last
-      end
     end
   end
 end
diff --git a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/element/text.rb b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/element/text.rb
index bd767308..45b25797 100644
--- a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/element/text.rb
+++ b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/element/text.rb
@@ -16,6 +16,19 @@
 class AndroidTest
   class Element
     class Text < Minitest::Test
+      include AndroidTestNavigation
+
+      def setup
+        super
+        reset_test_app
+      end
+
+      def teardown
+        reset_test_app
+      ensure
+        super
+      end
+
       def must_raise_no_element
         assert_raises Selenium::WebDriver::Error::NoSuchElementError do
           yield
diff --git a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/patch.rb b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/patch.rb
index 7b807b27..b89190db 100644
--- a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/patch.rb
+++ b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/android/patch.rb
@@ -15,6 +15,19 @@
 # rake "android[android/patch]"
 class AndroidTest
   class Patch < Minitest::Test
+    include AndroidTestNavigation
+
+    def setup
+      super
+      reset_test_app
+    end
+
+    def teardown
+      reset_test_app
+    ensure
+      super
+    end
+
     def test_type
       # nav to textfield
       wait { find('app').click }
diff --git a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/common/device.rb b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/common/device.rb
index 52065231..e3a3909e 100644
--- a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/common/device.rb
+++ b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/common/device.rb
@@ -16,36 +16,43 @@
 class AndroidTest
   class Common
     class Device < Minitest::Test
+      include AndroidTestNavigation
+
+      def setup
+        super
+        reset_test_app
+      end
+
+      def teardown
+        reset_test_app
+      ensure
+        super
+      end
+
       def test_01_get_performance_data_types
         expected = %w(batteryinfo cpuinfo memoryinfo networkinfo)
-        assert_equal get_performance_data_types.sort, expected
+        assert_equal expected, get_performance_data_types.sort
+      end
 
-        assert_equal get_performance_data(
-          package_name: 'io.appium.android.apis', data_type: 'cpuinfo'
-        )[0], %w(user kernel)
+      def test_01_get_performance_data
+        # CPU samples may omit a newly started/idle app. Battery data exercises
+        # the same client endpoint without depending on a process sampling window.
+        data = get_performance_data(package_name: 'io.appium.android.apis', data_type: 'batteryinfo')
+        assert_equal ['power'], data.fetch(0)
+        assert_equal 1, data.fetch(1).length
+        assert_includes 0..100, Integer(data.fetch(1).fetch(0))
       end
 
       def test_02_start_activity
         wait { assert_equal current_activity, '.ApiDemos' }
-        start_activity(
-          app_package: 'io.appium.android.apis',
-          app_activity: '.accessibility.AccessibilityNodeProviderActivity'
-        )
+        start_test_activity('io.appium.android.apis/.accessibility.AccessibilityNodeProviderActivity')
         wait { assert_equal current_activity.include?('Node'), true }
-        start_activity(
-          app_package: 'com.android.settings',
-          app_activity: '.Settings',
-          app_wait_package: 'com.android.settings',
-          app_wait_activity: '.Settings'
-        )
+        start_test_activity('com.android.settings/.Settings')
         wait { assert_equal current_activity.include?('Settings'), true }
       end
 
       def test_03_current_package
-        start_activity(
-          app_package: 'io.appium.android.apis',
-          app_activity: '.accessibility.AccessibilityNodeProviderActivity'
-        )
+        start_test_activity('io.appium.android.apis/.accessibility.AccessibilityNodeProviderActivity')
         wait { assert_equal current_package, 'io.appium.android.apis' }
       end
 
diff --git a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/common/device_touchaction.rb b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/common/device_touchaction.rb
index ae6064f0..f2d89ff2 100644
--- a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/common/device_touchaction.rb
+++ b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/common/device_touchaction.rb
@@ -16,6 +16,19 @@
 class AndroidTest
   class Common
     class DeviceTouchAction < Minitest::Test
+      include AndroidTestNavigation
+
+      def setup
+        super
+        reset_test_app
+      end
+
+      def teardown
+        reset_test_app
+      ensure
+        super
+      end
+
       def test_01_before_test
         wait { text('Accessibility') }
       end
@@ -78,7 +91,7 @@ def test_05_pinch_zoom
           origin: ::Selenium::WebDriver::Interactions::PointerMove::VIEWPORT
         )
         f2.create_pointer_down(:left)
-        f1.create_pause(0.5)
+        f2.create_pause(0.5)
         f2.create_pointer_move(
           duration: 3, x: 500, y: 900,
           origin: ::Selenium::WebDriver::Interactions::PointerMove::VIEWPORT
diff --git a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/common/patch.rb b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/common/patch.rb
index effe44f6..a2fd17d6 100644
--- a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/common/patch.rb
+++ b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/common/patch.rb
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ def test_01_element_method_name
 
       def test_02_element_method_location_rel
         wait do
-          loc = first_text.location_rel($driver)
+          loc = first_text.location_rel(AppiumTestSession.driver)
           assert_equal loc.x.class, String
           assert_equal loc.y.class, String
         end
@@ -45,13 +45,14 @@ def test_02_element_method_location_rel
       # By default, the webdriver gem will return message instead of origValue
       def test_03_common_patch_id_error_message
         value = ''
+        previous_wait = driver.manage.timeouts.implicit_wait
         begin
           set_wait 0
           find_element(:id, 'ok')
         rescue StandardError => e
           value = e.message
         ensure
-          set_wait 30
+          set_wait previous_wait
         end
         exp = 'An element could not be located on the page using the given search parameters.'
         assert value.start_with? exp
diff --git a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/driver.rb b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/driver.rb
index f9e2212e..38e7edb2 100644
--- a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/driver.rb
+++ b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/driver.rb
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ def test_05_attributes_verify_all_attributes
       assert_equal caps_with_json['appPackage'], 'io.appium.android.apis'
       assert_equal caps_with_json['appActivity'], 'io.appium.android.apis.ApiDemos'
       assert_equal caps_with_json['deviceName'], 'Android emulator'
-      assert_equal caps_with_json['someCapability'], 'some_capability'
+      assert_equal 'some_capability', caps_with_json['some_capability']
 
       assert_equal actual[:caps][:platformName], 'android'
       assert_equal actual[:caps][:app], expected_app
@@ -92,11 +92,11 @@ def test_05_attributes_verify_all_attributes
     end
 
     def test_06_driver_class
-      assert_equal $driver.class, Appium::Driver
+      assert_equal AppiumTestSession.driver.class, Appium::Driver
     end
 
     def absolute_app_path(path)
-      $driver.class.absolute_app_path(caps: { app: path })
+      AppiumTestSession.driver.class.absolute_app_path(caps: { app: path })
     end
 
     def validate_path(path)
diff --git a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/install.rb b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/install.rb
index 6dd03956..d726ec3a 100644
--- a/android_tests/lib/android/specs/install.rb
+++ b/android_tests/lib/android/specs/install.rb
@@ -15,7 +15,15 @@
 # rake "android[install]"
 class AndroidTest
   class Install < Minitest::Test
-    # To Do: Blocked on https://github.com/appium/appium/issues/3032
+    include AndroidTestNavigation
+
+    def teardown
+      install_app caps[:app] unless app_installed?(pkg)
+      reset_test_app
+    ensure
+      super
+    end
+
     def pkg
       'io.appium.android.apis'
     end
@@ -35,9 +43,5 @@ def test_install_uninstall
       install_app caps[:app]
       installed
     end
-
-    # no way to launch apk after it's uninstalled/installed
-    # blocked on: https://github.com/appium/appium/issues/2969
-    # launch_app
   end
 end
diff --git a/android_tests/lib/run.rb b/android_tests/lib/run.rb
index b97505f4..4634c016 100644
--- a/android_tests/lib/run.rb
+++ b/android_tests/lib/run.rb
@@ -35,8 +35,18 @@
 # Run only the view album test:
 #   ruby run.rb ios view_album
 
+module AppiumTestSession
+  class << self
+    attr_accessor :driver
+  end
+end
+
 def start_driver(caps)
-  driver = Appium::Driver.new(caps, true)
+  global_driver = ENV.fetch('APPIUM_TEST_GLOBAL_DRIVER', 'false')
+  raise 'APPIUM_TEST_GLOBAL_DRIVER must be true or false' unless %w(true false).include?(global_driver)
+
+  driver = Appium::Driver.new(caps, global_driver == 'true')
+  AppiumTestSession.driver = driver
   # Tests expect methods defined on the minispec object
   Appium.promote_appium_methods Minitest::Test, driver
 
@@ -66,6 +76,12 @@ def start_driver(caps)
          caps.merge(appium_lib: { debug: true, wait: 1 })
        end
 
+if device == 'ios'
+  caps[:caps][:app] = ENV['IOS_APP'] if ENV['IOS_APP']
+  caps[:caps][:platformVersion] = ENV['IOS_VERSION'] if ENV['IOS_VERSION']
+  caps[:caps][:deviceName] = ENV['IOS_DEVICE_NAME'] if ENV['IOS_DEVICE_NAME']
+end
+
 if ENV['LOCAL_PREBUILT_WDA']
   caps[:caps][:usePreinstalledWDA] = true
   caps[:caps][:prebuiltWDAPath] = ENV['LOCAL_PREBUILT_WDA']
@@ -118,4 +134,4 @@ def start_driver(caps)
 end
 
 # Exit after tests.
-Minitest.after_run { $driver&.x }
+Minitest.after_run { AppiumTestSession.driver&.driver_quit }
diff --git a/android_tests/readme.md b/android_tests/readme.md
index b2fc58b1..ab013fba 100644
--- a/android_tests/readme.md
+++ b/android_tests/readme.md
@@ -3,6 +3,10 @@ ruby_lib_android
 
 ruby_lib's Android tests. Requires `Ruby 2.2+` or better.
 
+Tests use non-global drivers by default. To check legacy global mode, run
+`APPIUM_TEST_GLOBAL_DRIVER=true bundle exec rake android`. Both modes use the
+same test cases and explicitly close their session after the run.
+
 - `rake install` Install gems required to run the tests.
 - `rake android` Run all tests.
 - `rake android['android/element/generic']` Run a single test.
diff --git a/appium_lib.gemspec b/appium_lib.gemspec
index 1c306d7e..bfefb0ed 100644
--- a/appium_lib.gemspec
+++ b/appium_lib.gemspec
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@ Gem::Specification.new do |s|
 
   s.add_dependency 'appium_lib_core', '>= 13.0.0', '< 14.0'
   s.add_dependency 'nokogiri', '~> 1.8', '>= 1.8.1'
+  s.add_dependency 'ostruct', '~> 0.6'
   s.add_dependency 'tomlrb', '>= 1.1', '< 4.0'
 
   s.files = Dir.glob('lib/**/*.rb', base: __dir__) + %w[appium_lib.gemspec readme.md LICENSE-2.0.txt CHANGELOG.md]
diff --git a/docs/docs.md b/docs/docs.md
index 12521239..a9477c99 100644
--- a/docs/docs.md
+++ b/docs/docs.md
@@ -34,7 +34,9 @@ apk = {
         appActivity: '.Settings',
         appWaitActivity: '.Settings'
       }
-Appium::Driver.new({caps: apk}, false).start_driver
+appium = Appium::Driver.new({caps: apk}, false)
+appium.start_driver
+appium.find_element(:id, 'target') # use the wrapper for subsequent commands
 ```
 
 Example use of Appium's mobile gesture.
@@ -117,14 +119,15 @@ require 'json' # for .to_json
 require 'sauce_whisk'
 
 After do |scenario|
-  # end the test session, ignoring any exceptions.
-  ignore { $driver.driver_quit }
+  # Keep @appium_driver from setup and capture the ID before closing its session.
+  session_id = @appium_driver.session_id
+  @appium_driver.driver_quit
   
   user   = ENV['SAUCE_USERNAME']
   key    = ENV['SAUCE_ACCESS_KEY']
   if user && !user.empty? && key && !key.empty?
     passed = ! scenario.failed?
-    SauceWhisk::Jobs.change_status $driver.driver.session_id, passed
+    SauceWhisk::Jobs.change_status session_id, passed
   end
 end
 ```
diff --git a/docs/parallel.md b/docs/parallel.md
index 138fbb7b..d868077c 100644
--- a/docs/parallel.md
+++ b/docs/parallel.md
@@ -1,3 +1,66 @@
+# Using drivers without a global reference
+
+`Appium::Driver.new(opts)` uses a non-global driver by default. You can also
+select this explicitly with `Appium::Driver.new(opts, false)` or
+`Appium::Driver.new(opts.merge(global_driver: false))`. An explicit second
+argument takes precedence over the hash option; `nil` uses the hash option.
+The constructor does not remove the option from the caller's hash.
+
+Keep the ruby_lib wrapper to use its helpers. `start_driver` returns the
+underlying core driver, not the wrapper:
+
+```ruby
+appium = Appium::Driver.new(opts, false)
+begin
+  appium.start_driver
+  appium.find_element(:id, 'target').click
+ensure
+  appium.driver_quit
+end
+```
+
+Each wrapper starts, restarts, and quits only its own session. Non-global
+wrappers can coexist with a legacy `$driver`; their page inspection and
+coordinate helpers use their own driver. App strings are cached per session
+and are loaded again after a restart.
+
+For multiple devices, keep one wrapper per device and configure distinct
+server-side device identifiers and ports where required by the Appium driver.
+Do not concurrently operate on the same wrapper from multiple threads.
+
+For Page Objects, hold the driver on each instance:
+
+```ruby
+class LoginPage
+  def initialize(appium)
+    @appium = appium
+  end
+
+  def submit
+    @appium.find_element(:id, 'submit').click
+  end
+end
+
+first_page = LoginPage.new(first_driver)
+second_page = LoginPage.new(second_driver)
+```
+
+`Appium.promote_appium_methods(MyTests, appium)` and
+`Appium.promote_singleton_appium_methods([MyPageModule], appium)` also work
+without `$driver`. Promotion binds a whole class or module to a driver, not
+individual Page Object instances. Re-promoting a class changes the driver for
+all its instances. Use distinct targets or instance-held drivers for concurrent
+sessions. Omitting the driver argument still uses `$driver` for compatibility.
+
+## Legacy global mode
+
+`Appium::Driver.new(opts, true)` continues to register `$driver` and close the
+previous global session when replacing it. Existing implicit promotion calls
+remain available in this mode. Starting a non-global wrapper no longer closes
+the global session, and restarting any wrapper only replaces its own session.
+
+## Existing parallel examples
+
 Appium 1.7.0+ supports single server and multiple sessions, and it requires Xcode 9 for iOS.
 
 # Example
diff --git a/ios_tests/appium.txt b/ios_tests/appium.txt
index d88c0ad5..9598eacb 100644
--- a/ios_tests/appium.txt
+++ b/ios_tests/appium.txt
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ app = "../test_apps/UICatalog.app.zip"
 someCapability = "some_capability"
 simulatorStartupTimeout = 600000
 wdaLaunchTimeout = 600000
+includeSafariInWebviews = true
 
 [appium_lib]
 wait = 30
diff --git a/ios_tests/lib/common.rb b/ios_tests/lib/common.rb
index 867db930..b81e9580 100644
--- a/ios_tests/lib/common.rb
+++ b/ios_tests/lib/common.rb
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ def go_to_textfields
 end
 
 def screen
-  $driver.find_element(:class, ui_ios.navbar).name
+  AppiumTestSession.driver.find_element(:class, ui_ios.navbar).name
 end
 
 def catalog
@@ -43,7 +43,28 @@ def target_bundle_id
 end
 
 def ui_ios
-  UI.new($driver)
+  UI.new(AppiumTestSession.driver)
+end
+
+# Opt in for tests that must not inherit a previous test's screen or context.
+module IosTestNavigation
+  def reset_test_app
+    set_context 'NATIVE_APP'
+    driver.terminate_app target_bundle_id
+    driver.activate_app target_bundle_id
+    wait_true { screen == catalog }
+  end
+
+  def setup
+    super
+    reset_test_app
+  end
+
+  def teardown
+    reset_test_app
+  ensure
+    super
+  end
 end
 
 class UI
diff --git a/ios_tests/lib/fixture_server.rb b/ios_tests/lib/fixture_server.rb
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..60c9d930
--- /dev/null
+++ b/ios_tests/lib/fixture_server.rb
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+# frozen_string_literal: true
+
+require 'socket'
+
+# A Simulator can reach the host loopback address. Keep web tests offline.
+class IosFixtureServer
+  attr_reader :url
+
+  def initialize
+    @server = TCPServer.new('127.0.0.1', 0)
+    @url = "http://127.0.0.1:#{@server.addr[1]}/"
+    @thread = Thread.new do
+      loop do
+        socket = @server.accept
+        begin
+          while (line = socket.gets) && line != "\r\n"
+            # Consume the request headers before returning the fixture.
+          end
+          body = '<html><head><title>ruby-lib-webview</title></head><body>ruby-lib-webview</body></html>'
+          socket.write "HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\nContent-Type: text/html; charset=utf-8\r\n" \
+                       "Content-Length: #{body.bytesize}\r\nConnection: close\r\n\r\n#{body}"
+        ensure
+          socket.close
+        end
+      end
+    end
+  end
+
+  def close
+    @thread.kill
+    @thread.join
+    @server.close
+  end
+end
diff --git a/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/common/patch.rb b/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/common/patch.rb
index 56b8d4f1..5ee0e284 100644
--- a/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/common/patch.rb
+++ b/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/common/patch.rb
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ def test_02_appium_core_element_method_name
       end
 
       def test_03_appium_core_element_method_location_rel
-        loc = first_text.location_rel($driver)
+        loc = first_text.location_rel(AppiumTestSession.driver)
         assert_equal loc.x.class, String
         assert_equal loc.y.class, String
       end
diff --git a/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/common/web_context.rb b/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/common/web_context.rb
index 95b4c796..aaaa51e5 100644
--- a/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/common/web_context.rb
+++ b/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/common/web_context.rb
@@ -15,36 +15,59 @@
 # Tests specifically for areas where the web_context differs in behaviour
 # rake "ios[common/web_context]"
 
+require_relative '../../../fixture_server'
+
 class IosTest
   class Common
     class WebContext < Minitest::Test
-      def test_01_before_first
-        driver.terminate_app target_bundle_id
-        driver.activate_app target_bundle_id
-        assert_equal screen, catalog
-      end
+      include IosTestNavigation
 
-      def test_02_get_ios_inspect
-        find_eles_by_predicate_include(value: 'Web').first.click
+      SAFARI_BUNDLE_ID = 'com.apple.mobilesafari'
 
-        wait_true { available_contexts.size >= 2 }
-        web_view_context = available_contexts.find { |c| c.start_with? 'WEBVIEW' } # Get WEBVIEW_59153.1 for example.
+      def loaded_webview
+        context = nil
+        wait_true(timeout: 60) do
+          context = xcuitest_get_contexts.find do |candidate|
+            candidate['id'].start_with?('WEBVIEW_') &&
+              candidate['url'] == @fixture.url
+          end
+        end
+        context
+      end
 
-        set_context web_view_context
-        assert_equal current_context, web_view_context
-        sleep 1 # Give a chance to load
-        assert_equal page.start_with?("\nhtml\n"), true
+      def setup
+        super
+        @fixture = IosFixtureServer.new
+        # UICatalog's legacy UIWebView uses a protocol removed by RemoteDebugger.
+        # Safari exercises web-context inspection with a supported WebKit target.
+        driver.execute_script 'mobile: deepLink', url: @fixture.url, bundleId: SAFARI_BUNDLE_ID
       end
 
-      def test_03_xcuitest_get_contexts
-        context = xcuitest_get_contexts
-        assert_equal({ 'id' => 'NATIVE_APP' }, context.first)
-        assert context[1]['id'].include?('WEBVIEW_')
+      def teardown
+        set_context 'NATIVE_APP'
+        driver.terminate_app SAFARI_BUNDLE_ID
+      ensure
+        @fixture&.close
+        super
       end
 
-      def test_04_after_last
+      def test_get_ios_inspect
+        webview = loaded_webview
+        set_context webview.fetch('id')
+        assert_equal webview.fetch('id'), current_context
+        wait_true { execute_script('return document.readyState') == 'complete' }
+        assert_includes page, "\nbody\n  text: ruby-lib-webview"
+        assert_includes get_source, 'ruby-lib-webview'
+      ensure
         set_context 'NATIVE_APP'
-        back_click
+      end
+
+      def test_xcuitest_get_contexts
+        webview = loaded_webview
+        assert_includes xcuitest_get_contexts, { 'id' => 'NATIVE_APP' }
+        assert_includes available_contexts, webview.fetch('id')
+        assert_equal SAFARI_BUNDLE_ID, webview.fetch('bundleId')
+        assert_equal @fixture.url, webview.fetch('url')
       end
     end
   end
diff --git a/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/driver.rb b/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/driver.rb
index 49d16d7e..22217687 100644
--- a/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/driver.rb
+++ b/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/driver.rb
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ def test_03_load_settings
     def test_04_verify_all_attributes
       actual                = driver_attributes
       caps_app_for_teardown = actual[:caps][:app]
-      expected_app = File.absolute_path('../test_apps/UICatalog.app.zip')
+      expected_app = File.absolute_path(ENV.fetch('IOS_APP', '../test_apps/UICatalog.app.zip'))
 
       # actual[:caps].to_json send to Appium server
       caps_with_json = JSON.parse(actual[:caps].to_json)
@@ -89,11 +89,11 @@ def test_07_no_wait
 
     def test_08_app_path_attr
       apk_name = File.basename driver_attributes[:caps][:app]
-      assert_equal apk_name, 'UICatalog.app.zip'
+      assert_equal File.basename(ENV.fetch('IOS_APP', 'UICatalog.app.zip')), apk_name
     end
 
     def test_09_driver_class
-      assert_equal $driver.class, Appium::Driver
+      assert_equal AppiumTestSession.driver.class, Appium::Driver
     end
 
     def test_10_status
diff --git a/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/ios/command/multi_app_handler.rb b/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/ios/command/multi_app_handler.rb
index 5d186ee5..e395c67a 100644
--- a/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/ios/command/multi_app_handler.rb
+++ b/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/ios/command/multi_app_handler.rb
@@ -17,29 +17,29 @@ class IosTest
   class Ios
     class Command
       class MultiAppHandler < Minitest::Test
-        # Only for Xcode 9+
-        def test_multip_app_handler
-          driver.terminate_app target_bundle_id
-          driver.activate_app target_bundle_id
+        include IosTestNavigation
 
+        def test_multi_app_handler
           test_app_bundle = target_bundle_id
 
-          assert_equal xcuitest_query_app_status(bundle_id: test_app_bundle), :running_in_foreground
+          assert_equal :running_in_foreground, xcuitest_query_app_status(bundle_id: test_app_bundle)
 
-          assert_equal xcuitest_terminate_app(bundle_id: test_app_bundle), true
-          assert_equal xcuitest_query_app_status(bundle_id: test_app_bundle), :not_running
+          assert_equal true, xcuitest_terminate_app(bundle_id: test_app_bundle)
+          assert_equal :not_running, xcuitest_query_app_status(bundle_id: test_app_bundle)
 
           assert xcuitest_activate_app(bundle_id: test_app_bundle).nil?
-          assert_equal xcuitest_query_app_status(bundle_id: test_app_bundle), :running_in_foreground
+          assert_equal :running_in_foreground, xcuitest_query_app_status(bundle_id: test_app_bundle)
 
           assert xcuitest_activate_app(bundle_id: 'com.apple.Preferences').nil?
           wait(timeout: 5) do
-            assert_equal xcuitest_query_app_status(bundle_id: test_app_bundle), :running_in_background_suspended
+            # iOS may suspend the background app before we observe its state.
+            assert_includes %i[running_in_background running_in_background_suspended],
+                            xcuitest_query_app_status(bundle_id: test_app_bundle)
           end
 
           assert xcuitest_activate_app(bundle_id: test_app_bundle).nil?
           wait(timeout: 5) do
-            assert_equal xcuitest_query_app_status(bundle_id: test_app_bundle), :running_in_foreground
+            assert_equal :running_in_foreground, xcuitest_query_app_status(bundle_id: test_app_bundle)
           end
         end
       end
diff --git a/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/ios/xcuitest_gestures.rb b/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/ios/xcuitest_gestures.rb
index 8349939e..9ed58561 100644
--- a/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/ios/xcuitest_gestures.rb
+++ b/ios_tests/lib/ios/specs/ios/xcuitest_gestures.rb
@@ -16,111 +16,84 @@
 class IosTest
   class Ios
     class XcuitestGestures < Minitest::Test
-      def open_alert_ok_cancel
-        wait_true do
-          find_element(:name, 'Okay / Cancel').click
-          find_element(:name, 'A Short Title Is Best').displayed?
-        end
-      end
+      include IosTestNavigation
 
-      def open_alert_custom
-        wait_true do
-          find_element(:name, 'Other').click
-          find_element(:name, 'A Short Title Is Best').displayed?
-        end
+      def open_screen(name)
+        wait { find_element(:accessibility_id, name).click }
+        wait_true { screen == name }
       end
 
-      def test_01_before_first
-        driver.terminate_app target_bundle_id
-        driver.activate_app target_bundle_id
-        assert_equal screen, catalog
+      def open_alert(name)
+        wait { find_element(:accessibility_id, name).click }
+        wait_true { find_element(:name, 'A Short Title Is Best').displayed? }
       end
 
-      def test_02_tap
-        element = text('controls')
-        one_finger_tap x: 0, y: 0, element: element
-
-        back_click
-
-        element = text('controls')
-        rect = element.rect
+      def test_tap
+        element = text_exact('Buttons')
+        one_finger_tap x: element.rect.width / 2, y: element.rect.height / 2, element: element
+        wait_true { screen == 'Buttons' }
+        rect = button_exact('Button').rect
         one_finger_tap x: rect.x + rect.width / 2, y: rect.y + rect.height / 2
+        assert_equal 'Buttons', screen
       end
 
-      def test_03_double_tap
-        element = button('Search')
-        double_tap(element: element)
+      def test_double_tap
+        open_screen 'Buttons'
+        double_tap(element: button_exact('Button'))
+        assert_equal 'Buttons', screen
       end
 
-      def test_04_touch_and_hold
-        element = button('Tools')
-        touch_and_hold(element: element, duration: 4.0)
-        touch_and_hold(x: 100, y: 100)
+      def test_touch_and_hold
+        open_screen 'Buttons'
+        element = button_exact('Button')
+        touch_and_hold(element: element, duration: 1.0)
+        rect = element.rect
+        touch_and_hold(x: rect.x + rect.width / 2, y: rect.y + rect.height / 2)
+        assert_equal 'Buttons', screen
       end
 
-      def test_05_swipe
-        swipe direction: 'down'
-        swipe direction: 'down'
-
-        assert_raises Selenium::WebDriver::Error::NoSuchElementError do
-          text('Toolbars')
-        end
+      def test_swipe
+        table = find_element(:class_name, ui_ios.table)
+        2.times { swipe direction: 'up', element: table }
+        wait_true { find_element(:accessibility_id, 'Toolbars').displayed? }
+        2.times { swipe direction: 'down', element: table }
+        wait_true { find_element(:accessibility_id, 'Activity Indicators').displayed? }
       end
 
-      def test_06_drag_from_to_for_duration
+      def test_drag_from_to_for_duration
         drag_from_to_for_duration from_x: 100, from_y: 100, to_x: 100, to_y: 400
+        assert_equal catalog, screen
       end
 
-      def test_07_pinch
+      def test_pinch
+        open_screen 'Image View'
         pinch(scale: 0.5, velocity: -1)
+        assert_equal 'Image View', screen
       end
 
-      def test_08_back_to_top
-        back_click
-      end
-
-      def test_09_select_picker_wheel
-        element = text('Picker View')
-        one_finger_tap x: 0, y: 0, element: element
-
-        e = find_element :class, ui_ios.picker_wheel
-        previous_value = e.text
-        select_picker_wheel(element: e, order: 'next')
+      def test_select_picker_wheel
+        open_screen 'Picker View'
+        element = find_element :class, ui_ios.picker_wheel
+        previous_value = element.text
+        select_picker_wheel(element: element, order: 'next')
 
         current_element = find_element(:class, ui_ios.picker_wheel)
-        assert_equal current_element.displayed?, true
-        assert current_element.text != previous_value
-      end
-
-      def test_10_back_to_top
-        back_click
+        assert current_element.displayed?
+        refute_equal previous_value, current_element.text
       end
 
-      def test_11_alert
-        wait_true do
-          find_element(:name, 'Alert Views').click
-          tag(ui_ios.navbar).name == 'Alert Views'
-        end
-
-        open_alert_ok_cancel
+      def test_alert
+        open_screen 'Alert Views'
+        open_alert 'Okay / Cancel'
         alert action: 'accept'
 
-        open_alert_ok_cancel
+        open_alert 'Okay / Cancel'
         alert action: 'dismiss'
 
-        open_alert_custom
-        list = alert action: 'getButtons'
-        assert_equal list, ['Choice One', 'Choice Two', 'Cancel']
+        open_alert 'Other'
+        assert_equal ['Choice One', 'Choice Two', 'Cancel'], alert(action: 'getButtons')
         alert action: 'accept', button_label: 'Choice Two'
       end
-
-      def test_12_back_to_top
-        back_click
-      end
-
-      def test_13_after_last
-        assert_equal screen, catalog
-      end
     end
   end
 end
diff --git a/ios_tests/readme.md b/ios_tests/readme.md
index 7e3dd0e0..309de003 100644
--- a/ios_tests/readme.md
+++ b/ios_tests/readme.md
@@ -3,6 +3,10 @@ ruby_lib_ios
 
 ruby_lib's iOS tests. Requires `Ruby 2.2+` or better.
 
+Tests use non-global drivers by default. To check legacy global mode, run
+`APPIUM_TEST_GLOBAL_DRIVER=true bundle exec rake ios`. Both modes use the
+same test cases and explicitly close their session after the run.
+
 - `rake install` Install gems required to run the tests.
 - `rake ios` Run all tests.
 - `rake` Run all the test. Same as `rake ios`
@@ -29,4 +33,15 @@ Finished in 1 min 57 secs
 ### Tips for parallel 
 
 - https://github.com/grosser/parallel_tests
-   - Usage: https://github.com/appium/ruby_lib_core#run-parallel-tests-with-parallel_tests-gem
\ No newline at end of file
+   - Usage: https://github.com/appium/ruby_lib_core#run-parallel-tests-with-parallel_tests-gem
+
+For a local Simulator with a different runtime or device, set `IOS_VERSION` and
+`IOS_DEVICE_NAME`. `IOS_APP` may point to a locally built UICatalog app with the
+same screens and bundle ID (for example, an ARM Simulator build). The default
+remains `test_apps/UICatalog.app.zip`. CI allows up to 900 seconds per HTTP request
+with `APPIUM_TEST_READ_TIMEOUT`, so the 600-second WDA startup budget can finish.
+
+Web-context tests open Safari against a temporary localhost HTML fixture. The
+bundled UICatalog uses legacy UIWebView, whose protocol is no longer supported by
+current Appium RemoteDebugger. These tests require an iOS Simulator and restore
+UICatalog after closing the fixture server.
diff --git a/lib/appium_lib/android/common/helper.rb b/lib/appium_lib/android/common/helper.rb
index 50cb291b..707429f6 100644
--- a/lib/appium_lib/android/common/helper.rb
+++ b/lib/appium_lib/android/common/helper.rb
@@ -27,9 +27,10 @@ def filter=(value)
         @filter = value.to_s.downcase
       end
 
-      def initialize # rubocop:disable Lint/MissingSuper
+      def initialize(driver = $driver) # rubocop:disable Lint/MissingSuper
         reset
         @filter = false
+        @driver = driver
       end
 
       def reset
@@ -38,7 +39,7 @@ def reset
       end
 
       # http://nokogiri.org/Nokogiri/XML/SAX/Document.html
-      def start_element(name, attrs = [], driver = $driver)
+      def start_element(name, attrs = [], driver = @driver)
         return if filter && !name.downcase.include?(filter)
 
         attributes = {}
@@ -49,7 +50,7 @@ def start_element(name, attrs = [], driver = $driver)
 
         # scoped to: text resource-id content-desc view-tag
         attributes_values = attributes.values
-        strings           = driver.lazy_load_strings
+        strings           = driver ? driver.lazy_load_strings : {}
         id_matches = strings.empty? ? [] : strings.select { |_key, value| attributes_values.include? value }
 
         string_ids = nil
@@ -104,7 +105,7 @@ def get_android_inspect(class_name = false)
       parser = if source_is_html # parse html from webview
                  @android_html_parser ||= Nokogiri::HTML::SAX::Parser.new(Appium::Common::HTMLElements.new)
                else
-                 @android_native_parser ||= Nokogiri::XML::SAX::Parser.new(AndroidElements.new)
+                 @android_native_parser ||= Nokogiri::XML::SAX::Parser.new(AndroidElements.new(self))
                end
       parser.document.reset # ensure document is reset before parsing
       parser.document.filter = class_name
diff --git a/lib/appium_lib/appium.rb b/lib/appium_lib/appium.rb
index de3d2610..e58ae157 100644
--- a/lib/appium_lib/appium.rb
+++ b/lib/appium_lib/appium.rb
@@ -152,7 +152,7 @@ def expand_required_files(base_dir, file_paths)
     # @param [Array<Module>] modules An array of modules
     # @param [Driver] driver A driver to extend for
     def promote_singleton_appium_methods(modules, driver = $driver)
-      raise ArgumentError, 'Global $driver is nil' if driver.nil?
+      raise ArgumentError, 'Driver is nil' if driver.nil?
 
       target_modules = []
 
@@ -167,16 +167,24 @@ def promote_singleton_appium_methods(modules, driver = $driver)
       end
 
       target_modules.each do |const|
+        promoted_methods = const.instance_variable_get(:@_appium_promoted_singleton_methods) || {}
+        const.instance_variable_set(:@_appium_promoted_singleton_methods, promoted_methods)
         # noinspection RubyResolve
         driver.public_methods(false).each do |m|
-          # override unless there's an existing method with matching arity
-          next if const.respond_to?(m) && const.method(m).arity == driver.method(m).arity
+          # Preserve user methods, but refresh wrappers that captured an earlier driver.
+          if const.respond_to?(m)
+            existing = const.method(m)
+            next if existing != promoted_methods[m] && existing.arity == driver.method(m).arity
+
+            const.singleton_class.send(:remove_method, m) if existing == promoted_methods[m]
+          end
 
           const.send(:define_singleton_method, m) do |*args, **kwargs, &block|
             super(*args, **kwargs, &block) # promote.rb
           rescue NoMethodError, ::ArgumentError
             driver.send m, *args, **kwargs, &block if driver.respond_to?(m)
           end
+          promoted_methods[m] = const.method(m)
         end
       end
     end
diff --git a/lib/appium_lib/common/helper.rb b/lib/appium_lib/common/helper.rb
index a457b7cb..302ad73a 100644
--- a/lib/appium_lib/common/helper.rb
+++ b/lib/appium_lib/common/helper.rb
@@ -68,6 +68,7 @@ def xpaths(xpath_str)
 
     # json and ap are required for the source method.
     require 'json'
+    require 'ostruct'
 
     # @private
     # http://nokogiri.org/Nokogiri/XML/SAX.html
@@ -162,7 +163,7 @@ def get_source
     #
     #   px_to_window_rel x: 50, y: 150 #=> #<OpenStruct x="50.0 / 375.0", y="150.0 / 667.0">
     #
-    def px_to_window_rel(opts = {}, driver = $driver)
+    def px_to_window_rel(opts = {}, driver = self)
       w = driver.window_size
       x = opts.fetch :x, 0
       y = opts.fetch :y, 0
@@ -173,6 +174,8 @@ def px_to_window_rel(opts = {}, driver = $driver)
 
     # @private
     def lazy_load_strings
+      return {} if @driver.nil?
+
       # app strings only works on local apps.
       # on disk apps (ex: com.android.settings) will error
       @lazy_load_strings ||= ignore { app_strings } || {}
@@ -182,24 +185,21 @@ def lazy_load_strings
     # @param target [String] the target to search for in strings.xml values
     # @return [Array]
     def xml_keys(target)
-      lazy_load_strings
-      @lazy_load_strings.select { |key, _value| key.downcase.include? target.downcase }
+      lazy_load_strings.select { |key, _value| key.downcase.include? target.downcase }
     end
 
     # Search strings.xml's keys for target.
     # @param target [String] the target to search for in strings.xml keys
     # @return [Array]
     def xml_values(target)
-      lazy_load_strings
-      @lazy_load_strings.select { |_key, value| value.downcase.include? target.downcase }
+      lazy_load_strings.select { |_key, value| value.downcase.include? target.downcase }
     end
 
     # Resolve id in strings.xml and return the value.
     # @param id [String] the id to resolve
     # @return [String]
     def resolve_id(id)
-      lazy_load_strings
-      @lazy_load_strings[id]
+      lazy_load_strings[id]
     end
 
     # @private
diff --git a/lib/appium_lib/driver.rb b/lib/appium_lib/driver.rb
index 711c1891..62363b0f 100644
--- a/lib/appium_lib/driver.rb
+++ b/lib/appium_lib/driver.rb
@@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ def get_cap(caps, name)
     # Instance of Appium::Core::Driver
     attr_reader :core
 
-    # Creates a new driver. The driver is defined as global scope by default.
+    # Creates a new driver without a global reference by default.
     # We can avoid defining global driver.
     #
     # @example
@@ -195,15 +195,18 @@ def get_cap(caps, name)
     #   appium_driver.start_driver
     #
     # @param opts [Object] A hash containing various options.
-    # @param global_driver [Bool] A bool require global driver before initialize.
+    # @param global_driver [Boolean, nil] Register as $driver when true. nil uses opts[:global_driver], default false.
     # @return [Driver]
-    def initialize(opts = {}, global_driver = false)
-      # Capybara can't put `global_driver` as the 2nd argument.
-      global_driver = opts.delete :global_driver if global_driver.nil?
+    def initialize(opts = {}, global_driver = nil)
+      raise ArgumentError, 'opts must be a hash' unless opts.is_a? Hash
 
-      $driver&.driver_quit if global_driver
+      # Support options-only callers without changing their options hash.
+      # An explicit second argument takes precedence over the hash option.
+      opts = opts.dup
+      configured_global_driver = opts.delete(:global_driver) { opts.delete('global_driver') { false } }
+      global_driver = configured_global_driver if global_driver.nil?
 
-      raise ArgumentError, 'opts must be a hash' unless opts.is_a? Hash
+      $driver&.driver_quit if global_driver
 
       @core = ::Appium::Core.for(opts)
       extend ::Appium::Core::Device
@@ -495,9 +498,12 @@ def element_screenshot(element, png_save_path)
     # @return [void]
     def driver_quit
       @driver&.quit
-      @driver = nil
+      nil
     rescue Selenium::WebDriver::Error::WebDriverError
       nil
+    ensure
+      @driver = nil
+      @lazy_load_strings = nil
     end
     alias quit_driver driver_quit
 
@@ -534,7 +540,7 @@ def window_rect
       @driver.window_rect
     end
 
-    # Creates a new global driver and quits the old one if it exists.
+    # Creates a new session and quits this instance's previous session if it exists.
     # You can customise http_client as the following
     #
     # Read http://www.rubydoc.info/github/appium/ruby_lib_core/Appium/Core/Device to understand more what the driver
@@ -562,7 +568,7 @@ def window_rect
     # @option http_client_ops [Hash] :http_client Custom HTTP Client
     # @option http_client_ops [Hash] :open_timeout Custom open timeout for http client.
     # @option http_client_ops [Hash] :read_timeout Custom read timeout for http client.
-    # @return [Selenium::WebDriver] the new global driver
+    # @return [Selenium::WebDriver] the underlying driver for the new session
     def start_driver(http_client_ops = { http_client: nil, open_timeout: 999_999, read_timeout: 999_999 })
       http_client = http_client_ops[:http_client]
       if http_client.nil?
@@ -570,12 +576,8 @@ def start_driver(http_client_ops = { http_client: nil, open_timeout: 999_999, re
                                                   read_timeout: http_client_ops[:read_timeout])
       end
 
-      # TODO: do not kill the previous session in the future version.
-      if $driver.nil?
-        driver_quit
-      else
-        $driver.driver_quit
-      end
+      # Each wrapper owns its session, even when another wrapper is global.
+      driver_quit
 
       # If automationName is set only in server side, then the following automation_name should be nil before
       # starting driver.
diff --git a/readme.md b/readme.md
index c132d4c9..79e6fc7b 100644
--- a/readme.md
+++ b/readme.md
@@ -15,6 +15,9 @@ Helper methods for writing cross platform (iOS, Android) tests in Ruby using App
 Ordinary, `ruby_lib` worked with class driver, `$driver`, mainly.
 We can avoid the class driver with current `ruby_lib`, but if you'd like to implement your test cases based on instance driver, `@driver`, you can consider using `ruby_lib_core` first.
 
+See [non-global drivers and migration](docs/parallel.md) for instance-based usage,
+Page Objects, and coexistence with legacy global drivers.
+
 # Setup
 ## Requirement
 - [Appium](https://github.com/appium/appium#requirements)
diff --git a/test/non_global_driver_test.rb b/test/non_global_driver_test.rb
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..4903e4e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test/non_global_driver_test.rb
@@ -0,0 +1,371 @@
+# frozen_string_literal: true
+
+require 'minitest/autorun'
+require 'appium_lib'
+
+class NonGlobalDriverTest < Minitest::Test
+  class Session
+    attr_reader :quit_count, :calls
+    attr_accessor :strings
+
+    def initialize(name, width = 375)
+      @name = name
+      @width = width
+      @quit_count = 0
+      @calls = []
+      @strings = { 'label' => name }
+    end
+
+    def quit
+      @quit_count += 1
+    end
+
+    def session_id = @name
+    def window_size = Struct.new(:width, :height).new(@width, 667)
+    def app_strings(*) = @strings
+    def page_source = "<hierarchy><android.widget.Button text=\"#{@name}\" /></hierarchy>"
+
+    def find_elements(*args)
+      @calls << [:find_elements, args]
+      []
+    end
+
+    def find_element(*args)
+      @calls << [:find_element, args]
+      @name
+    end
+
+    def update_settings(settings)
+      @calls << [:update_settings, settings]
+      settings
+    end
+
+    def execute_script(*args)
+      @calls << [:execute_script, args]
+      args
+    end
+  end
+
+  def setup
+    @previous_global = $driver
+    $driver = nil
+  end
+
+  def teardown
+    $driver = @previous_global
+  end
+
+  def build(*sessions, global: false, platform: 'Android', automation: 'UiAutomator2')
+    wrapper = Appium::Driver.new({ caps: { platformName: platform, automationName: automation } }, global)
+    queue = sessions.dup
+    wrapper.core.define_singleton_method(:start_driver) do |**options|
+      @http_client = options[:http_client_ops][:http_client]
+      @driver = queue.shift || raise('No mock session left')
+    end
+    wrapper.define_singleton_method(:appium_server_version) { {} }
+    wrapper
+  end
+
+  def test_global_driver_registration_and_replacement
+    first_session = Session.new('first')
+    first = build(first_session, global: true)
+    first.start_driver
+    assert_same first, $driver
+
+    second = build(Session.new('second'), global: true)
+    assert_equal 1, first_session.quit_count
+    assert_same second, $driver
+    second.start_driver
+    assert_equal 'second', second.session_id
+  end
+
+  def test_global_helpers_and_implicit_promotion_remain_supported
+    global = build(Session.new('legacy'), global: true)
+    global.start_driver
+    target = Class.new
+    Appium.promote_appium_methods(target)
+    assert_equal 'legacy', target.new.session_id
+    assert_equal '50.0 / 375.0', target.new.px_to_window_rel(x: 50).x
+    assert_includes target.new.get_android_inspect, 'strings.xml: label'
+  end
+
+  def test_quit_error_clears_session_and_strings_cache
+    old_session = Session.new('old')
+    def old_session.quit
+      raise Selenium::WebDriver::Error::WebDriverError, 'Session already gone'
+    end
+    local = build(old_session, Session.new('replacement'))
+    local.start_driver
+    assert_equal 'old', local.resolve_id('label')
+    assert_nil local.driver_quit
+    assert_nil local.driver
+    local.start_driver
+    assert_equal 'replacement', local.resolve_id('label')
+  end
+
+  def test_constructor_hash_option_and_explicit_false_precedence
+    opts = { caps: { platformName: 'Android', automationName: 'UiAutomator2' }, global_driver: true }.freeze
+    global = Appium::Driver.new(opts)
+    assert_same global, $driver
+    assert_equal true, opts[:global_driver]
+
+    local = Appium::Driver.new(opts, false)
+    refute_same local, $driver
+    assert_same global, $driver
+  end
+
+  def test_constructor_nil_and_string_key_options
+    opts = { caps: { platformName: 'Android', automationName: 'UiAutomator2' }, 'global_driver' => true }
+    global = Appium::Driver.new(opts, nil)
+    assert_same global, $driver
+    assert_equal true, opts['global_driver']
+  end
+
+  def test_explicit_true_overrides_hash_false
+    opts = { caps: { platformName: 'Android', automationName: 'UiAutomator2' }, global_driver: false }
+    global = Appium::Driver.new(opts, true)
+    assert_same global, $driver
+  end
+
+  def test_explicit_coordinate_driver_is_still_supported
+    local = build(Session.new('local', 375))
+    other = build(Session.new('other', 1000))
+    local.start_driver
+    other.start_driver
+    assert_equal '50.0 / 1000.0', local.px_to_window_rel({ x: 50 }, other).x
+    assert_instance_of OpenStruct, local.px_to_window_rel(x: 50)
+  end
+
+  def test_singleton_repromotion_preserves_user_replacement
+    a = build(Session.new('first'))
+    b = build(Session.new('second'))
+    target = Module.new
+    Appium.promote_singleton_appium_methods([target], a)
+    target.define_singleton_method(:find_element) { |*args| [:custom, args] }
+    Appium.promote_singleton_appium_methods([target], b)
+    assert_equal [:custom, [:id, 'target']], target.find_element(:id, 'target')
+  end
+
+  def test_default_and_explicit_false_leave_global_unset
+    opts = { caps: { platformName: 'Android', automationName: 'UiAutomator2' } }
+    Appium::Driver.new(opts.dup)
+    Appium::Driver.new(opts.dup, false)
+    Appium::Driver.new(opts.merge(global_driver: false))
+    assert_nil $driver
+  end
+
+  def test_two_non_global_sessions_are_isolated
+    first = Session.new('first')
+    second = Session.new('second')
+    a = build(first)
+    b = build(second)
+    a.start_driver
+    b.start_driver
+    assert_equal 'first', a.find_element(:id, 'target')
+    assert_equal 'second', b.find_element(:id, 'target')
+    assert_equal [0, 0], [first.quit_count, second.quit_count]
+    assert_nil $driver
+  end
+
+  def test_restart_only_closes_own_non_global_session
+    first = Session.new('first')
+    replacement = Session.new('replacement')
+    other = Session.new('other')
+    a = build(first, replacement)
+    b = build(other)
+    a.start_driver
+    b.start_driver
+    a.restart
+    assert_equal [1, 0, 0], [first.quit_count, replacement.quit_count, other.quit_count]
+    assert_equal 'replacement', a.session_id
+    assert_equal 'other', b.session_id
+  end
+
+  def test_quit_is_idempotent_and_does_not_close_other_session
+    first = Session.new('first')
+    second = Session.new('second')
+    a = build(first)
+    b = build(second)
+    a.start_driver
+    b.start_driver
+    2.times { a.driver_quit }
+    assert_equal [1, 0], [first.quit_count, second.quit_count]
+    assert_nil a.driver
+    assert_equal 'second', b.session_id
+  end
+
+  def test_start_non_global_must_not_close_global_session
+    global_session = Session.new('global')
+    local_session = Session.new('local')
+    g = build(global_session, global: true)
+    g.start_driver
+    local = build(local_session)
+    local.start_driver
+    assert_equal 0, global_session.quit_count
+    assert_equal 'global', g.session_id
+  end
+
+  def test_start_non_global_closes_own_previous_session_even_with_global_reference
+    first = Session.new('first')
+    replacement = Session.new('replacement')
+    local = build(first, replacement)
+    local.start_driver
+    build(global: true)
+    local.start_driver
+    assert_equal 1, first.quit_count
+    assert_equal 'replacement', local.session_id
+  end
+
+  def test_local_coordinates_without_global
+    d = build(Session.new('local', 375))
+    d.start_driver
+    assert_equal '50.0 / 375.0', d.px_to_window_rel(x: 50).x
+  end
+
+  def test_local_coordinates_ignore_other_global_driver
+    local = build(Session.new('local', 375))
+    local.start_driver
+    g = build(Session.new('global', 1000), global: true)
+    g.start_driver
+    assert_equal '50.0 / 375.0', local.px_to_window_rel(x: 50).x
+  end
+
+  def test_android_inspect_isolated_from_global_and_other_local_driver
+    a = build(Session.new('first'))
+    b = build(Session.new('second'))
+    a.start_driver
+    b.start_driver
+    g = build(Session.new('global'), global: true)
+    g.start_driver
+    assert_includes a.get_android_inspect, 'text: first'
+    assert_includes a.get_android_inspect, 'strings.xml: label'
+    assert_includes b.get_android_inspect, 'text: second'
+    assert_includes b.get_android_inspect, 'strings.xml: label'
+  end
+
+  def test_android_inspect_without_any_global_driver
+    d = build(Session.new('local'))
+    d.start_driver
+    assert_includes d.get_android_inspect, 'strings.xml: label'
+    assert_nil $driver
+  end
+
+  def test_strings_cache_is_isolated_between_instances
+    a = build(Session.new('first'))
+    b = build(Session.new('second'))
+    a.start_driver
+    b.start_driver
+    assert_equal 'first', a.resolve_id('label')
+    assert_equal 'second', b.resolve_id('label')
+  end
+
+  def test_restart_invalidates_session_strings_cache
+    d = build(Session.new('first'), Session.new('replacement'))
+    d.start_driver
+    assert_equal 'first', d.resolve_id('label')
+    d.restart
+    assert_equal 'replacement', d.resolve_id('label')
+  end
+
+  def test_inspection_before_start_does_not_poison_strings_cache
+    d = build(Session.new('started'))
+    assert_empty d.lazy_load_strings
+    assert_empty d.xml_keys('label')
+    assert_empty d.xml_values('started')
+    assert_nil d.resolve_id('label')
+    d.start_driver
+    assert_equal 'started', d.resolve_id('label')
+  end
+
+  def test_common_delegation_without_global
+    s = Session.new('local')
+    d = build(s)
+    d.start_driver
+    assert_equal 'local', d.xpath('//button')
+    assert_equal({ 'setting' => true }, d.update_settings({ 'setting' => true }))
+    assert_equal ['mobile: shell', { command: 'echo', args: ['hello'] }], d.shell('echo', ['hello'])
+  end
+
+  def test_ios_gesture_without_global
+    d = build(Session.new('ios'), platform: 'iOS', automation: 'XCUITest')
+    d.start_driver
+    assert_equal ['mobile: swipe', { direction: 'down' }], d.swipe(direction: 'down')
+    assert_nil $driver
+  end
+
+  def test_espresso_helpers_without_global
+    s = Session.new('espresso')
+    d = build(s, automation: 'Espresso')
+    d.start_driver
+    assert_equal 'espresso', d.find('target')
+    assert_equal :xpath, s.calls.last[1].first
+  end
+
+  def test_explicit_promotion_without_global
+    d = build(Session.new('local'))
+    d.start_driver
+    target = Class.new
+    Appium.promote_appium_methods(target, d)
+    assert_equal 'local', target.new.session_id
+    assert_nil $driver
+  end
+
+  def test_class_promotion_retains_shared_class_semantics
+    a = build(Session.new('first'))
+    b = build(Session.new('second'))
+    a.start_driver
+    b.start_driver
+    target = Class.new
+    Appium.promote_appium_methods(target, a)
+    first_page = target.new
+    assert_equal 'first', first_page.session_id
+    Appium.promote_appium_methods(target, b)
+    assert_equal 'second', first_page.session_id
+  end
+
+  def test_singleton_promotion_can_switch_driver
+    a = build(Session.new('first'))
+    b = build(Session.new('second'))
+    a.start_driver
+    b.start_driver
+    target = Module.new
+    Appium.promote_singleton_appium_methods([target], a)
+    assert_equal 'first', target.session_id
+    Appium.promote_singleton_appium_methods([target], b)
+    assert_equal 'second', target.session_id
+  end
+
+  def test_singleton_promotion_preserves_inherited_keyword_method
+    driver = Object.new
+    driver.define_singleton_method(:command) { |**kwargs| [:driver, kwargs] }
+    inherited = Module.new do
+      def command(**kwargs) = [:inherited, kwargs]
+    end
+    target = Module.new { extend inherited }
+    Appium.promote_singleton_appium_methods([target], driver)
+    assert_equal [:inherited, { value: 1 }], target.command(value: 1)
+  end
+
+  def test_singleton_repromotion_updates_variadic_methods
+    first = Session.new('first')
+    second = Session.new('second')
+    a = build(first)
+    b = build(second)
+    a.start_driver
+    b.start_driver
+    target = Module.new
+    Appium.promote_singleton_appium_methods([target], a)
+    Appium.promote_singleton_appium_methods([target], b)
+    target.find_element(:id, 'target')
+    assert_empty first.calls
+    assert_equal [[:find_element, [:id, 'target']]], second.calls
+  end
+
+  def test_promoted_keyword_method_accepts_previous_hash_call_style
+    d = build(Session.new('ios'), platform: 'iOS', automation: 'XCUITest')
+    d.start_driver
+    target = Class.new
+    Appium.promote_appium_methods(target, d)
+    assert_equal ['mobile: swipe', { direction: 'down' }], target.new.swipe({ direction: 'down' })
+  end
+end
diff --git a/test/regression_test.rb b/test/regression_test.rb
index 87a94f67..e09aca0d 100644
--- a/test/regression_test.rb
+++ b/test/regression_test.rb
@@ -163,7 +163,7 @@ def stub_driver.lazy_load_strings
     )
     doc.start_element(
       'androidx.compose.ui.platform.ComposeView',
-      [['view-tag', 'compose_tag']],
+      [%w[view-tag compose_tag]],
       stub_driver
     )